The Hundred Years' War: Unraveling the Military Campaigns of 1345-1347

1. Summary

• The period of 1345 to 1347 in the Hundred Years' War is marked by significant military campaigns that shaped the dynamic between England and France. Focused primarily on the English ambitions to regain territory and assert dominance, the conflict witnessed crucial operations such as the Gascon campaign and the siege of Caen. Each of these military endeavors involved intricate strategic planning and execution, highlighting the evolving nature of warfare during this era. The Gascon campaign, led by Edward III’s lieutenant, the Earl of Derby, aimed to reclaim the crucial region of Gascony, where English interests were both economic and strategic. By leveraging local resources and military tactics, Derby achieved notable victories which disrupted French forces and ultimately set the stage for further English aggression in France.

• Simultaneously, the siege of Caen emerged as a defining event in the conflict. From June to September 1346, English forces laid siege to this fortified stronghold, employing innovative strategies and the famed longbowmen who would become synonymous with English military prowess. The successful capture of Caen not only showcased English military effectiveness but also had resulting ramifications for French morale and territorial control. The psychological impact of these successes reinforced a burgeoning national identity amongst the English populace, framing their struggle as one of legitimacy and power against a historically feudal backdrop.

• These campaigns were not merely isolated incidents; they represented broader trends in military engagement and the socio-political landscape of medieval Europe. The shifts in morale, territorial control, and tactical methodologies during 1345 to 1347 shaped the ongoing narrative of the Hundred Years' War, pushing both nations toward a reckoning with their identities and aspirations in the face of mounting conflict.

2. Setting the Historical Context of the Hundred Years' War

• 2-1. Overview of the Hundred Years' War

• The Hundred Years' War was a protracted series of conflicts between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France that lasted from 1337 to 1453. This war was not a continuous battle but rather a series of military engagements and truces that defined the political landscape of medieval Europe. The conflict was primarily instigated by disputes over territorial claims and the legitimate succession to the French throne. King Edward III of England laid claim to the French crown based on his lineage through his mother, Isabella, who was the sister of the deceased King Charles IV of France. This claim was a significant factor that initiated the hostilities between the two nations, marking the beginning of the war in 1337, though significant fighting only began in earnest in 1340 as both sides prepared for a prolonged and costly struggle.

• The war can be divided into several distinct phases, with the first phase, often referred to as the Edwardian War, encompassing the years from 1337 to 1360. During this time, the English forces, under Edward III and his son, the Black Prince, achieved notable victories, including the significant triumphs at the battles of Crécy and Poitiers. Edward III's strategy focused on the conquest of key territories in France, particularly Aquitaine, which was both strategically valuable and a symbol of English power in France. By the mid-1360s, the conflict had settled into a more localized form of warfare characterized by periods of intense siege and reprieve.

• The Hundred Years' War, while primarily a conflict of kings, involved numerous noble factions, shifting alliances, and significant civilian impacts due to rampant military engagements across regions of France. The fluctuating fortunes of both nations during this conflict underscored a transition in military strategy, the rise of nationalistic sentiment, and the profound consequences of warfare on feudal dynamics within Europe.

• 2-2. The significance of the conflict between England and France

• The Hundred Years' War had far-reaching implications not just for England and France but for the entire landscape of medieval Europe. One of the most significant outcomes of this prolonged conflict was the development of national identities. Both the English and French people began to see themselves as members of a nation, united in their purpose and loyalty to their king rather than merely as subjects of a feudal lord. This burgeoning sense of nationality would shape future conflicts and national boundaries in Europe.

• Economically, the war was disastrous for France, leading to the devastation of vast areas, particularly in northern France, which suffered siege and sacking. Towns were laid waste, agriculture was disrupted, and the population endured significant hardship. The English, on the other hand, capitalized on their victories, especially in the early years of the war, establishing trade links and extracting economic benefits from their conquered territories. This redistribution of wealth contributed to the growing power of the English crown but also sowed the seeds of resentment among the French populace, leading to future rebellions and struggles for independence.

• The significance of the conflict also extended to the military practices of the time. The war witnessed the rise of new tactics and the evolution of warfare. The use of longbows by the English archers at battles like Crécy fundamentally altered military engagements, demonstrating the effectiveness of foot soldiers and ranged combat over traditional knightly cavalry charges. This shift would influence military strategy in subsequent conflicts and mark the beginning of the end for the dominance of feudal knights in warfare.

• 2-3. Key figures and political motivations

• Key figures such as Edward III of England and Philip VI of France played pivotal roles in the genesis and course of the Hundred Years' War. Edward III's aspiration to crown himself as King of France was driven not only by his lineage but also by the desire to reclaim territorial rights to regions like Aquitaine and to assert his power on the European stage. His reign marked a period of aggressive military campaigns, highlighting his strategic military acumen and ability to rally support among his nobles for extensive military endeavors against France.

• On the French side, Philip VI faced the daunting challenge of defending the French realm against English expansion. Philip's political motivations were tied to maintaining the integrity of the French monarchy and territorial integrity against English claims. His efforts involved organizing various military campaigns and navigating the complex internal politics of France, which often included dealing with regional lords whose loyalty was not guaranteed. The period saw significant battles, such as those at Crécy and Poitiers, where both kings' decisions would reverberate throughout Europe, affecting alliances and peace negotiations.

• Moreover, other key characters emerged throughout the war, influencing its direction and outcome. The Black Prince, Edward III's son, became a celebrated military leader whose exploits further bolstered the English cause. In contrast, figures like Bertrand du Guesclin would later symbolize the French resistance, embodying the shifting tides of fortune as the war progressed into different phases. Thus, the political motivations of both kingdoms extended beyond mere territorial disputes, embodying broader narratives of sovereignty, power dynamics, and the quest for legitimacy in the feudal system.

3. The Gascon Campaign of 1345: A Strategic Offensive

• 3-1. Initial objectives and intentions of the English command

• The Gascon campaign of 1345 emerged from a long-standing conflict between England and France that characteristically marked the Hundred Years' War. The initial objective of the English command, particularly under Edward III and his appointed lieutenant Henry, Earl of Derby, was to reassert English control and influence in Gascony, an English-held territory nestled in the south-western part of France. By 1345, Gascony was critically important, not only for its strategic geographical position but also due to its rich resources, including the valuable wine trade through Bordeaux which formed a significant source of income for the English crown. To achieve these objectives, Derby was entrusted with a military force that he was to bolster with local recruits and resources. His strategic mandate emphasized swift and decisive action against French forces, which had been gathering strength due to a lack of English military presence in the region. The Earl’s freedom to operate with a substantial degree of autonomy allowed him to tailor his campaign based on the developing situation on the ground, focusing on rapid victories to enhance morale among his troops and secure support from Gascon nobility.

• 3-2. Detailed narrative of the campaign's progression

• The campaign commenced in August 1345 when Derby arrived in Gascony to find Franco-English tensions at a boiling point. Initially, he moved to consolidate his forces quickly before engaging in decisive actions against a formidable French army that had assembled at Bergerac, a strategic stronghold roughly 60 miles from Bordeaux. In what would be a hallmark of his military strategy, Derby chose to engage this enemy head-on. His forces achieved a decisive victory at Bergerac which catapulted their reputation, effectively rendering the French forces in disarray as they retreated and shifted their focus. As Derby advanced towards Périgueux, he laid siege to the city and aimed to extend English influence throughout the region. However, the situation shifted dramatically when John, Duke of Normandy (the future king of France), sought to counter Derby's aggression with a larger force. Realizing the potential threat this larger French army posed, Derby executed a tactical withdrawal, leaving a garrison behind to maintain the siege. This pivotal moment allowed Derby to regroup and later execute a counterattack against John’s forces at Auberoche. Derby's successful surprise assault led to another resounding victory, marking the demoralization of the French troops who faced unpaid wages and dwindling supplies. This string of successes not only solidified Derby's command but also visibly crippled French military efforts in the region.

• 3-3. Military tactics employed by Henry, Earl of Derby

• Henry, Earl of Derby, displayed innovative military strategies characterized by rapid movement, decisive engagement, and effective use of local terrain. His tactics emphasized adaptability, enabling him to take advantage of the disarray within French ranks. At Bergerac, Derby's forces utilized the element of surprise and leveraged their knowledge of local geography to overpower the larger French army. His decision to directly engage the enemy rather than entrenching himself in a prolonged siege demonstrated a keen understanding of morale's role in warfare. Furthermore, Derby's offensive included not just direct confrontations; his forces effectively cut off French supply lines and targeted lesser garrisons, strategically weakening the French position throughout Gascony. The combination of rigorous discipline, swift horseback maneuvers, and the rallying of local Gascon knights contributed to the sustained pressure on French fortifications. By the campaign's end, Derby had not only secured significant military victories but also fostered an environment that revitalized English influence over Gascony, highlighting the importance of combined arms tactics in medieval warfare. With each victory, the Earl’s forces enriched themselves through captured noble prisoners, demonstrating the socio-economic impact of military maneuvers beyond mere battlefield victories.

4. The English Assault on Caen: A Turning Point

• 4-1. Overview of the siege of Caen

• The siege of Caen emerged as a critical event during the Hundred Years' War, marking a turning point for English forces. Beginning in June 1346 and concluding in September 1346, the siege demonstrated England's military ambitions under King Edward III. Caen, a significant stronghold in Normandy, served as a strategic target due to its location and resources. The English sought to capture this city as part of a broader strategy to weaken French defenses and assert control over key territories in France.

• Historically, Caen had a population of around 10, 000 and boasted a formidable fortification system, making it a considerable challenge for any invading force. The English army, buoyed by their earlier successes in the region, launched a full-scale assault aimed at breaching these defenses. The siege commenced after a series of victories that had bolstered the English position in France. However, the siege would ultimately test the resolve and resources of both belligerents.

• 4-2. Military resources and strategies of the English

• Edward III dispatched a well-prepared army to lay siege to Caen, which included a mix of infantry, archers, and skilled cavalry. The English forces were estimated to comprise about 10, 000 men, a significant number facilitated by recent victories that had instilled confidence in the English campaign. The contingent included not only seasoned soldiers but also archers who were crucial in providing the necessary ranged support during the siege.

• Tactically, the English employed their renowned longbowmen, who became a defining element of their military approach. These archers could unleash a rapid and devastating hail of arrows, forcing the French defenders to remain behind their walls and minimizing their effectiveness in countering the siege. Furthermore, the English employed siege machinery, including trebuchets and other engines of war, to batter down fortifications, taking advantage of both surprise and the momentum generated by prior victories in the region.

• One pivotal moment during the siege occurred when the English forces managed to breach the southern gate of Caen. Following this, a fierce assault ensued, leading to chaos within the city as defenders struggled to mount a coordinated defense. The English also capitalized on internal strife among the defenders, further eroding their ability to resist effectively.

• 4-3. Outcomes and consequences of the siege

• The siege of Caen ultimately resulted in an English victory, solidifying their control over Normandy and significantly demoralizing French troops and supporters. Following the capture of the city in September 1346, English forces executed a considerable portion of the French troops present while also laying waste to the local populace. This brutal strategy was intended to instill fear and discourage further resistance from nearby cities and fortifications.

• The consequences of this assault extended beyond immediate territorial gains. The fall of Caen allowed the English to leverage their position in subsequent confrontations, including their ability to better stage further military operations. The capturing of Caen marked the beginning of a strategic advancement toward the important coastal city of Calais, which would become pivotal in England's ongoing campaigns.

• Moreover, the victory at Caen had profound influences on both English and French military strategies in the ensuing campaigns. On one side, the English demonstrated the effectiveness of combined arms tactics—utilizing foot soldiers, archers, and cavalry in concert while maintaining pressure on fortified positions. For the French, the loss emphasized the necessity for reforming their military organization, leading to an eventual reevaluation of their strategies and tactics in subsequent years. In sum, the siege of Caen represented a turning point that not only changed the dynamics of the Hundred Years' War but also set a precedent in military engagements of the period.

5. Consequences of the Campaigns: Impacts on Both Nations

• 5-1. Immediate effects on English and French morale

• The military campaigns of 1345 to 1347 during the Hundred Years' War had immediate and profound effects on the morale of both English and French forces. Following the English victories, particularly the assault on Caen and the significant defeat of French troops at the Battle of Crécy, English morale soared. The sense of invincibility that arose from these successes was pivotal, as it reinforced the belief in their military superiority and the effectiveness of their tactics. This psychological boost aided recruitment efforts, as men were more willing to join a victorious army, bolstering Edward III's forces with both experienced soldiers and enthusiastic volunteers. Conversely, the impact on French morale was devastating. The repeated defeats and territorial losses, notably the devastation of Normandy and the fall of Caen, created a stark sense of vulnerability and fear among the French populace and nobility. For the French army, which historically boasted robust knightly traditions and a reputation for battlefield superiority, these losses were humiliating, leading to a crisis in confidence. The fear of English prowess on the battlefield galvanized calls for reform within the French military structure, but initially resulted in disillusionment and infighting among feudal lords, further undermining collective morale. The contrasting experiences in morale would play a crucial role in shaping the future engagements of the war.

• 5-2. Long-term implications for territorial control

• The campaigns between 1345 and 1347 had significant long-term implications for territorial control in France. The English crown, after securing pivotal victories and the capture of key strongholds such as Caen and Calais, was able to establish a more effective foothold in Northern France. This territorial expansion not only provided direct control over economically vital ports but also allowed the English to disrupt French trade routes and exert influence over the area. In the long run, the fall of Caen symbolized an English reclamation of confidence and territory that pivoted the course of the Hundred Years' War. The English held Calais as a critical bastion for accessing mainland France, significantly influencing future military strategies and campaigns. The French, on the other hand, faced a pressing need to reassess their defenses, particularly in strategically essential regions, which prompted the strengthening of fortifications and the restructuring of their military command. As the war stretched on, the territorial disputes that arose from this period of conflict fueled ongoing antagonism between England and France. The aspirations for control over Aquitaine, Normandy, and other regions were further psychoped as political and territorial ambitions were juxtaposed with the military setbacks. This would lead to future confrontations and adjust alliances, perpetuating the cycle of conflict over claims and resources.

• 5-3. Shift in tactics and strategies in subsequent battles

• The military campaigns of 1345 to 1347 led to a notable shift in tactics and strategies employed by both English and French forces in their subsequent conflicts. The English, after their successes, particularly at Crécy, began to rely even more heavily on their longbowmen — a tactic that had proven both effective and devastating in previous encounters. The English strategy developed into a more mobile and adaptive format, favoring skirmishes and battles where their archers could dominate the battlefield from a distance before engaging in melee combat. On the other side, the French response to their defeats saw an evolution in their approach to warfare. Historically noted for heavy cavalry, the French were compelled to rethink their military doctrine, paying greater attention to the effectiveness of infantry and the necessity of more coordinated attacks. The strategy placed emphasis on avoiding direct confrontation in future engagements unless they could assure overwhelming numerical superiority. Additionally, the lessons learned from failed sieges and ambush tactics pushed the French command to innovate in reconnaissance and communication among troops, aiming to ensure better preparedness against English raids. Battles such as those seen in the later stages of the Hundred Years' War reflected this tactical evolution, with the French attempting to capitalize on their numbers and cavalry charges combined with more versatile infantry coverage — adjustments compelled by their earlier experiences. This shifting paradigm would define the battles of subsequent years, leading to a more complex interplay of tactics that characterized later clashes.

Conclusion

• In conclusion, the military campaigns between 1345 and 1347 during the Hundred Years' War illustrate the profound transformation in the art of warfare and its socio-political implications for both England and France. The English victories, particularly at Caen and the earlier successes in the Gascon campaign, symbolize a critical juncture that fostered not only military achievements but also a sense of national identity and pride. Conversely, the heavy defeats endured by the French catalyzed a period of introspection and reform within their military ranks, as traditional notions of chivalry and knightly conduct came into question in light of their losses.

• This analysis extends beyond the battlefield, revealing how the events during this period laid foundational principles for national consciousness that would resonate through future conflicts. The evolution of military strategies, impacted by technological advancements and the integration of common soldiers, marked a departure from feudal warfare, highlighting the importance of adapting to changing circumstances on and off the battlefield. Such dynamics emphasize the need for contemporary discourse to reflect on historical patterns of conflict, as they offer invaluable lessons in resilience, strategy, and the significance of societal cohesion.

• Ultimately, understanding these military campaigns contributes to a deeper appreciation of not just historical events but also the long-lasting effects they wield on national identities and political landscapes. This presentation emphasizes that the study of history is crucial in grasping the complexities of current geopolitical tensions and societal shifts.

Glossary

• Gascon Campaign [Event]: A military campaign from 1345 aimed at reclaiming control over the region of Gascony, significant for its economic resources and strategic location.

• Earl of Derby [Person]: Henry, the Earl of Derby, was Edward III's lieutenant during the Hundred Years' War, known for his command in the Gascon campaign and innovative military tactics.

• Siege of Caen [Event]: A crucial military engagement from June to September 1346, where English forces laid siege to the fortified city of Caen, marking a pivotal success in the Hundred Years' War.

• Longbowmen [Technology]: English archers who used the longbow, a key technological advancement in warfare that enabled rapid and accurate shooting, contributing to English victories during the Hundred Years' War.

• Edward III [Person]: King of England who claimed the French crown, leading aggressive campaigns during the Hundred Years' War to expand English territories in France.

• Philip VI [Person]: The King of France whose reign was marked by the initial stages of the Hundred Years' War, tasked with defending French claims against English territorial ambitions.

• Black Prince [Person]: Edward III's son and a notable military leader during the Hundred Years' War, known for his strategic victories and contribution to England's military reputation.

• National Identity [Concept]: The evolving consciousness of both the English and French populace to perceive themselves as united nations rather than mere subjects under feudal lords, influenced by the warfare during the Hundred Years' War.

• Tactical Withdrawal [Process]: A military maneuver executed by Derby during the Gascon campaign, allowing him to regroup his forces while maintaining strategic pressure on the French.

Source Documents

• Hundred Years' War, 1345–1347 - Wikipediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years'_War, _1345–1347
• Gascon campaign of 1345 - Wikipediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gascon_campaign_of_1345
• Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360 - Wikipediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Years'_War, _1337–1360